16. The most credible argument for congressional authority to enact such a statute would be based upon the

Article I, Section 8, Clause 3 empowers Congress to «regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes.» Commerce is defined as «every species of commercial intercourse. .. which concerns more states than one» and including virtually every form of activity involving or affecting two or more states. Gibbons v. Ogden, 22 U.S. 1 (1824). To be within Congress's power under the Commerce Clause, a federal law must regulate under one of four categories: (i) channels of interstate commerce; (ii) instrumentalities of interstate commerce and persons and things in interstate commerce; (iii) articles moving in interstate commerce; or (iv) activities that have a substantial effect on interstate commerce. Regarding activities that have a substantial effect on interstate commerce, when those activities are intrastate, the Court will uphold the regulation if it is of economic or commercial activity and if it can conceive of a rational basis on which Congress could conclude that the activity in aggregate substantially affects interstate commerce. Gonzales v. Raich, 545 U.S. 1 (2005).

Under Article I, Section 8, there is no independent congressional power to pursue the «general welfare.» The only relevance of general welfare is that Congress, when it taxes and spends, must be pursuing the general welfare (a requirement that has very little independent significance today).

The Thirteenth Amendment provides that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist in the United States. It was passed to eradicate slavery of Black people and may be invoked to combat the badges incident to slavery that exists still today. Congress has the power to enforce the Thirteenth Amendment by appropriate legislation, which is not explicitly limited to governmental action. This means that this Amendment can be a useful source of congressional power to reach certain private conduct. Under Jones v. Mayer, 392 U.S. 409 (1968), Congress can pass «all laws necessary and proper for abolishing all badges and incidents of slavery in the United States» (quoting other civil rights cases). The discrimination that is banned, however, must be on grounds of race, ancestry, or ethnic background.

The Fourteenth Amendment prohibits states (not the federal government or private persons) from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property without due process and equal protection of the law. Its Enforcement Clause states: «The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.»

B is correct. The most credible basis for congressional authority to enact a statute prohibiting discrimination in the sale or rental of housing on the basis of sexual orientation, both public and private, is the Commerce Clause. The congressional commerce power is plenary and includes even purely intrastate activities, both public and private, that have an aggregate substantial effect on interstate commerce. The sale and rental of nearly all housing nationwide would likely be found to have a substantial effect on interstate commerce in the aggregate.

A is incorrect. The General Welfare Clause is not the most credible basis because it authorizes Congress to pass laws related to taxing and spending in a way that promotes the general welfare, and this statute is neither a taxing or spending measure.

C is incorrect. The Enforcement Clause of the Thirteenth Amendment primarily protects Black Americans since the institution of slavery in the United States was race-based. The legislation in the question is based on sexual orientation, and so the Thirteenth Amendment would not offer the most obvious support.

D is incorrect. The Fourteenth Amendment applies to state action that deprives anyone of due process or equal protection, whereas the statute presented here also encompasses private action. As such, the Enforcement Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment would not be a credible basis.